Conditions for the Successor of the Prophet (s): Difference between revisions
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Revision as of 18:01, 19 February 2025
What are the conditions that both Shiites and Sunnis consider necessary for the successor of the Prophet (s), and what are the differences between these two sects in this regard?
The Shiite philosopher and theologian, Khāja Nasīr ad-Dīn at-Tūsī, in his book Risāla fi al-Imāma (Treatise on the Imamate), described the eight essential characteristics of the Imam: infallibility ('iṣma), knowledge of legislation and governance, courage, excellence in virtues, bodily and spiritual purity, closeness to God, the ability to perform miracles, and unity of mission.
According to the Shiite view, the Imam must be designated by God to properly fulfill his responsibilities in guiding and preserving the religion. Therefore, it is impermissible for anyone to appoint such an individual to this role. Shiites consider infallibility as a key characteristic of the Imam, as without it, trust in divine legislation would be compromised.
Sunnis consider several conditions for the Imam, such as membership in the Quraysh tribe, justice ('adāla), maturity, and courage. However, there are differences regarding other qualities such as religious scholarship (ijtihād) and competence (kifāya). The majority of Sunnis insist that the Imam must be from the Quraysh tribe, although some groups, like the Khawārij and some Mu'tazilites, reject this condition. Sunnis believe that the Imam does not need to be infallible. Even if he commits mistakes, it remains obligatory to obey him. However, there are differences among Sunnis on this matter, and due to the absence of certain qualities in the first caliphs (Abū Bakr, 'Umar, and 'Uthmān), some consider these characteristics not to be essential for the Imam.
Conditions of the Imam According to Shiites
Among Shiite theologians, Khwāja Naṣīr ad-Dīn at-Ṭūsī presents the most comprehensive list of the Imam's qualities in his treatise on the Imamate. He considers eight essential characteristics necessary for the Imam: infallibility ('iṣma), knowledge of Islamic law and governance, courage, excellence in character, freedom from physical, spiritual, and genealogical defects, closeness to God in terms of divine rewards in the afterlife, the ability to perform miracles when needed, and uniqueness in the position of Imamate.[1]
The Twelver Shiites regard the caliphate and Imamate as divine positions, similar to prophethood. The responsibility of the caliph and Imam is to preserve Islamic law, articulate and propagate the religion, and address the issues of the Muslim community. Therefore, specific qualities are considered necessary for the Imam, such that if someone does not possess these qualities, they cannot be considered the Imam and successor of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him).[2]
Infallibility
Template:Main article The Imam and the caliph must be infallible, meaning they are free from sins, errors, and faults. If the Imam is not infallible, trust in Islamic law would be undermined; indeed, if the guardian of the religion commits a sin or error, they could add elements to the religion and attribute them to God, or render unjust judgments. Moreover, since ordinary people are prone to error and need someone to prevent them from committing sins and mistakes and to guide them on the right path, if the Imam were also prone to error, this would contradict the very purpose of their role.[3]
Divine Investiture
The Imamate and caliphate represent God and the Prophet peace and blessings of Allah be upon him; therefore, they must be established through explicit designation by God and the Prophet peace and blessings of Allah be upon him. Since their establishment is limited to divine designation, others do not have the right to appoint the Imam. Indeed, if the selection of the Imam were left to people's discretion, disputes would arise among them, with each group choosing and favoring their own candidate. Therefore, the Imam must necessarily be appointed by God and the Prophet peace and blessings of Allah be upon him.[4]
Knowledge
Template:Main article According to Shiite theologians, the Imam and the caliph of the Prophet peace and blessings of Allah be upon him must be knowledgeable in all matters that Muslims need, both religious and worldly, as the purpose of appointing the Imam is for Muslims to seek his guidance in resolving all their affairs. The Twelver Shiites believe that knowledge and competence in the matter of Imamate must be of the highest degree. Shiite sources maintain that the Imam must possess comprehensive and infallible knowledge of all Islamic sciences and laws, for without such knowledge, the purpose of the Imamate—the preservation and exposition of Islamic law—cannot be fully realized.[5]
Superiority
Template:Main article The Imam must surpass all Muslims in virtuous qualities such as knowledge, wisdom, generosity, nobility, courage, magnanimity, justice, piety, and devotion, and must be the most exemplary.[6] The superiority of the Imam is a belief shared by certain sects, including the Zaydis and Ismailis. Furthermore, some scholars, like Mullā Ṣadrā, maintain that the Imams are superior to all other creatures in their essence and occupy higher ranks in the hierarchy of creation.[7]
Sunni Opinion on the Imam
Sa'd ad-Dīn at-Taftāzānī, in a relatively comprehensive list, enumerates the conditions for the Imam according to Sunni belief: maturity, justice, freedom, being male, ijtihād, courage, administrative competence, and Qurayshi descent. He explains that while the first four conditions are widely accepted, there are differences regarding ijtihād, courage, and competence; some theologians do not consider these conditions mandatory, arguing that the scarcity of these qualities might impose undue burden. The Qurayshi lineage requirement is accepted by the majority of Muslims, though the Khawārij and some Mu'tazilites oppose it.[8]
Aḥmad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb an-Nuwayrī, in his book Nihāyat al-Arab fī Funūn al-Adab, categorizes the conditions necessary for the role of Imam into conventional and religious requirements, and proceeds to elaborate on these conditions in a general classification.[9]
Condition of Lineage
The first condition established by Sunni sources for the Imam is Qurayshi descent. According to a hadith cited by Sunnis, the Imam must be from the Quraysh. Therefore, if no one among the Quraysh meets the necessary conditions for the Imamate, the Imam must be chosen from the tribe closest to the Quraysh, namely the Kināna tribe. In the absence of a qualified person from this tribe, the Imam will be chosen from other Arabs.[10]
Knowledge
The second important condition for the Imamate according to Sunnis is the Imam's knowledge and understanding of religious affairs. The Imam must be capable of understanding the administration of charity (zakāt), the conduct of jihād, and the distribution of war spoils (ghanīma). The rationale for this condition is that if the Imam lacks sufficient knowledge of legal and religious matters, he cannot implement them effectively. An-Nawawī stated on this matter:
- "The presence of an Imam who does not know what the Imamate requires is equivalent to having no Imam at all."[11]
Sunni sources emphasize that the Imam must also possess prudence and courage in public affairs, military recruitment, and border defense, as well as the ability to make just decisions without being swayed by personal inclinations.[12]
Justice
According to Sunni theological sources, the Imam must be just and uphold justice in both religious and civil matters. One argument advanced by some Sunnis is that since the state of transgression (fisq) lies outside the realm of faith, a person in this state cannot exercise authority over Muslims. If a scholar of Qurayshi descent is unjust while another is just but less scholarly, the just one should be appointed as Imam, and if necessary, his decisions should be made in consultation with religious scholars.[13]
Some Sunni theological sources assert that the Imam must be just and pious to guide people toward truth, as an unjust person is unqualified to lead. Sunnis maintain that if enemies rise against the government, it becomes necessary to combat them if required. However, supporting a tyrannical ruler is prohibited, and the ruler must uphold justice.[14]
Nomination by the Previous Imam or Election by Forty Believers
If a person fulfills all the necessary conditions for the Imamate, and the previous Imam has designated them as successor, their appointment is valid. If the previous Imam has not designated a successor, but the Muslims require a new Imam, forty righteous and knowledgeable Muslims can, through deliberation and ijtihād, elect the Imam. In this election, preference should be given to the most knowledgeable candidate, followed by others.[15]
Judge 'Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Ījī stated:
- "The Imamate is established through the oath of allegiance (bay'a), as in the case of Abū Bakr's Imamate... The consensus of the entire community is not necessary to establish the Imamate through bay'a, as there is no rational or textual evidence requiring the whole community's allegiance; the oath from one or two qualified decision-makers suffices to establish the Imamate."[16]
Rejection of Certain Conditions of the Imamate
Given that the three caliphs after the death of the Prophet of Islam peace and blessings of Allah be upon him lacked certain required conditions for the Imamate, this led to differences among Sunni scholars regarding the qualifications for the Imam. Judge 'Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Ījī, in his book Mawāqif, addresses these conditions, stating:
- "The Imamites maintain that the Imam must be Hashemite, knowledgeable in all religious matters, capable of performing miracles, and infallible. However, we reject these conditions due to the caliphate of Abū Bakr, who became Imam without possessing these qualities."[17]
Judge Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī states:
- "The Imam need not be infallible regarding sin and error; neither must he be the most excellent member of the community, nor superior to others in knowledge. The majority hold that if the Imam becomes corrupt, oppresses the people, misappropriates their wealth, commits murder, neglects people's rights, or suspends prescribed penalties (ḥudūd), he should not be removed from the Imamate, and it is not permissible for people to rebel against him. Rather, obedience to the Imams remains obligatory, even if they are unjust."[18]
References
- ↑ Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn (1405 q), Talkhīṣ al-Muḥaṣṣal (in Arabic), Bayrūt: Dār al-Aḍwā’, ṣ 429-430.
- ↑ Subḥānī, Ja‘far (1387 sh), Dāneshnāma-ye Kalām-e Islāmī, j 1, Qom: Mu’assasa-ye Imām Ṣādiq, ṣ 426-430.
- ↑ Khānsārī, Muḥammad Bāqir, Inṣāf dar Imāmat, ṣ 35, Nashr-e Ṣadūq, 1371 sh.
- ↑ Khānsārī, Muḥammad Bāqir, Inṣāf dar Imāmat, ṣ 31, Nashr-e Ṣadūq, 1371 sh.
- ↑ Subḥānī, Ja‘far (1387 sh), Dāneshnāma-ye Kalām-e Islāmī, j 1, Qom: Mu’assasa-ye Imām Ṣādiq, ṣ 426-430.
- ↑ Khānsārī, Muḥammad Bāqir, Inṣāf dar Imāmat, ṣ 32.
- ↑ Subḥānī, Ja‘far (1387 sh), Dāneshnāma-ye Kalām-e Islāmī, j 1, Qom: Mu’assasa-ye Imām Ṣādiq, ṣ 426-430.
- ↑ Taftāzānī, Sa‘d al-Dīn (1409 q), Sharḥ al-Maqāṣid (in Arabic), j 5, Qom: Manshūrāt al-Sharīf al-Raḍī, ṣ 244.
- ↑ Nawawī, Aḥmad (1423 q), Nihāyat al-Arb fī Funūn al-Adab (in Arabic), j 6, al-Qāhira: Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya, ṣ 1.
- ↑ Nawawī, Aḥmad (1423 q), Nihāyat al-Arb fī Funūn al-Adab (in Arabic), j 6, al-Qāhira: Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya, ṣ 1-3.
- ↑ Nawawī, Aḥmad (1423 q), Nihāyat al-Arb fī Funūn al-Adab (in Arabic), j 6, al-Qāhira: Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya, ṣ 2.
- ↑ Al-‘Abdarī al-Gharnāṭī, Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf (1416 q), al-Tāj wa al-Iklīl li-Mukhtaṣar Khalīl (in Arabic), j 8, bī-jā: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, ṣ 366.
- ↑ Nawawī, Aḥmad (1423 q), Nihāyat al-Arb fī Funūn al-Adab (in Arabic), j 6, al-Qāhira: Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya, ṣ 2-3.
- ↑ Al-‘Abdarī al-Gharnāṭī, Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf (1416 q), al-Tāj wa al-Iklīl li-Mukhtaṣar Khalīl (in Arabic), j 8, bī-jā: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, ṣ 366.
- ↑ Nawawī, Aḥmad (1423 q), Nihāyat al-Arb fī Funūn al-Adab (in Arabic), j 6, al-Qāhira: Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya, ṣ 1-3.
- ↑ Qāḍī Ījī, Mawāqif, j 3, ṣ 594.
- ↑ Qāḍī Ījī, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Aḥmad, Mawāqif, j 3, ṣ 586, Dār al-Jīl, Bayrūt, 1417 q.
- ↑ Bāqillānī, Tamhīd al-Awā’il wa Talkhīṣ al-Dalā’il, ṣ 470, Mu’assasa al-Kutub al-Thaqāfiyya, Bayrūt, 1414 q.