The Phenomenon of Takfir in Islamic Society
When did the phenomenon of takfir emerge among Muslims, and on what basis?
In Islamic society, takfir refers to the act of accusing someone who professes Islam and faith of disbelief (kufr). This phenomenon can manifest individually or evolve into an ideological movement. However, what poses a significant threat is the rise of takfiri movements that accuse Muslims of disbelief based on specific principles. For instance, the Khawarij judged Muslims by the criterion of major sins, while Salafis and Wahhabis accuse Muslims of disbelief due to practices such as making pilgrimage to graves, seeking intercession (shafa‘a), and seeking blessings (tabarruk).
Individual Takfir
This form of takfir typically arises without any religious foundation, often rooted in enmity and personal grievances. It occurs when one Muslim accuses another of kufr. Instances of individual takfir can be traced back to the early Islamic era, even during the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) lifetime, and later during the Caliphate. For example, during Abu Bakr’s rule, Malik ibn Nuwayra and his tribe were accused of withholding zakat and subsequently labeled disbelievers, leading to their massacre by Khalid ibn al-Walid.[1] However, such incidents are generally considered personal and do not fall under the category of organized takfiri movements.
Takfiri Movements and Sects
In contemporary times, the Islamic world has been challenged by takfiri movements that, under the guise of religious sects, stand in opposition to other Muslims. These movements have evolved over time and can be classified as follows:
The Khawarij Movement
The takfiri ideology materialized as a distinct school of thought with the emergence of the Khawarij sect, the earliest takfiri movement in Islamic history. The term "Khawarij" derives from "khuruj," meaning rebellion, and is often translated as "rebels".[2] This movement emerged during the Battle of Siffin in 37 AH, following the arbitration between Imam Ali (AS) and Muawiyah.[3]
Initially, the Khawarij were members of Imam Ali’s army who, having been deceived by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As, insisted on arbitration. However, after realizing their error, they accused Imam Ali (AS) of deviation and rejected the entire concept of arbitration, declaring it contrary to divine law.[4] They famously chanted the slogan «La hukma illa lillah» ("No judgment but Allah's").[5]
Imam Ali (AS) stood firm against them and clarified that their interpretation of arbitration (tahkim) was flawed. He explained that it was not individuals who were appointed as arbiters, but rather the Holy Qur'an itself.[6] Allah commands that in disputes, one should refer to Allah and His Messenger (PBUH). Referring to the Qur'an means adhering to its rulings, and referring to the Prophet (PBUH) entails following his Sunnah. If judgment is made based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet, the truth will prevail on our side.[7]
The Khawarij declared anyone who committed a major sin a disbeliever. Following them, Shia Muslims faced takfir under the Umayyad rule, leading to the widespread massacre of Shi'as.
The Barbahari Movement
In the 4th century AH, Abu Muhammad al-Barbahari, a prominent Hanbali scholar, prohibited the practice of visiting graves, a stance that was rejected by the Abbasid Caliph. It is also reported that in the same century, Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-‘Ukbari al-Hanbali, commonly known as Ibn Batta (d. 378 AH), denied the permissibility of seeking intercession (shafa‘a) through the Prophet (PBUH) and considered traveling to visit his grave a sinful journey.[8]
Barbahari was vehemently opposed to those he deemed innovators (ahl al-bid‘a), accusing them of heresy and organizing groups to suppress them. His actions provoked the anger of the Abbasid Caliph al-Qahir Billah, leading to his exile to Basra. During the reign of al-Radi Billah, the disturbances caused by Barbahari’s followers, known as the Barbahariyyah, intensified. Consequently, the Abbasid Caliph issued an order banning gatherings of more than two of his followers in any city. In response to the Abbasid government's strict measures, Barbahari went into hiding, where he eventually passed away.[9] Many of his followers in Baghdad were imprisoned, while others either went into hiding themselves or fled to other cities.
Ibn Taymiyyah: Revival of Barbahari Thought
In the 7th century AH, Ahmad ibn Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyyah[10] revitalized Barbahari’s ideology. He labeled practices such as visiting graves, intercession, and seeking blessings as acts of polytheism. Ibn Taymiyyah’s views laid the foundation for Wahhabism and prompted significant scholarly refutation from Sunni and Shia scholars of his time.[11]
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: The Modern Takfiri Movement
After Ibn Taymiyyah, the phenomenon of takfir in the Islamic world remained relatively dormant until the 12th century AH when Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab revived it. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman al-Tamimi, according to some reports, was born in 1111 AH (1703 or 1704 CE) and, according to others, in 1115 AH in the city of ‘Uyaynah, located in Najd.[12]
As the founder of Wahhabism, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab displayed extreme hostility toward Muslims, aligning his efforts with the goals of Islam’s adversaries. He controversially asserted that the polytheism (shirk) of Muslims was graver than the idolatry of pre-Islamic pagans. His reasoning was that the idolaters of the Jahiliyyah would turn to monotheism during times of distress, whereas Muslims, according to him, remained polytheistic both in hardship and ease.[13]
He further claimed that anyone who refrains from declaring such "polytheists" (Muslims) as disbelievers or harbors doubts about their disbelief is guilty of one of the gravest nullifiers of Islam.[14] In this regard, al-Qanuji remarked that during his time, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s followers emerged from Najd, seized control of the holy cities, and associated themselves with the Hanbali school of thought. They held the belief that they alone were true Muslims, while all others were polytheists, thus legitimizing the killing of Sunni scholars and other Muslims.[15]
This movement is classified as Salafi takfiri. These Salafis declare their opponents as disbelievers (kuffar). In the modern era, Wahhabism exemplifies Salafi takfiri ideology. According to Wahhabi principles, all Muslims who engage in certain religious practices are regarded as polytheists, whose blood is permissible to shed (mahdour al-damm). Consequently, Wahhabi movements have historically waged wars solely against other Muslims.[16] Today, all takfiri groups draw their ideology from Wahhabism, and they operate under the banner of Salafi takfiri thought, spilling Muslim blood and serving the interests of Islam’s adversaries.
Sources
- ↑ Ṭabarī, Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad b. Jarīr, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, n.d., vol. 2, pp. 272–273.
- ↑ Ḥawzī Sharunūmī, Saʿīd, Aqrab al-Mawārid, Beirut: Maṭbaʿah Marsilī al-Yasūʿiyyah, 1889, vol. 1, p. 264.
- ↑ Dīnawarī, Akhbār al-Ṭiwāl, trans. Maḥmūd Mahdī Dāmghānī, Tehran: Nashr-i Nī, 4th edition, 1371 SH, p. 23.
- ↑ Dīnawarī, Akhbār al-Ṭiwāl, p. 247.
- ↑ Dīnawarī, Akhbār al-Ṭiwāl, p. 23.
- ↑ Sūrat al-Nisāʾ, verse 59.
- ↑ Fayḍ al-Islām, Nahj al-Balāghah, p. 386, sermon 125.
- ↑ Faqīhī, ʿAlī Aṣghar, Wahhābiyyān, Qom: Ismāʿīliyyān Publications, 2nd edition, 1364 SH, pp. 19–20.
- ↑ Ziriklī, Khayr al-Dīn, al-Aʿlām, vol. 2, p. 201, Beirut: Dār al-ʿIlm li-l-Malāyīn, 5th edition, 1980.
- ↑ Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Muntaẓim fī Tārīkh al-Umam wa-l-Mulūk, vol. 13, p. 249, Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1st edition, 1412 H/1992 CE, edited by Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā and Muṣṭafā ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā.
- ↑ Kathīrī, Sayyid Muḥammad, al-Salafiyyah bayna al-Sunnah wa-l-Imāmiyyah, p. 211, Beirut: Ghadīr Publications, 1st edition, 1418 H.
- ↑ Ṣubḥānī, Jaʿfar, Buḥūth fī al-Milal wa-l-Niḥal, vol. 4, p. 334, Muʾassasah Nashr Islāmī, 3rd edition, 1414 H.
- ↑ Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, ʿAzīz al-ʿAẓmah, p. 121; Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Kashf al-Shubuhāt, pp. 33–34, Riyadh: Ministry of Islamic Affairs, 6th edition, 1420 H.
- ↑ ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ʿUbayṣ, al-Daʿwah ʿalā Manhaj al-Nubuwwah (Āthār al-Tajdīd fī al-Jazāʾir), p. 135, Riyadh, 1423 H.
- ↑ Qannūjī, Ṣiddīq b. Ḥasan, Abjad al-ʿUlūm, vol. 3, p. 198, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1998, as cited in Ḥāshiyyah Ibn ʿĀbidīn.
- ↑ ʿAlīzādah Mūsavī, Sayyid Mahdī, Salafīgarī wa Wahhābiyyah (Tabārshināsī), vol. 1, pp. 94–95, Qom: Dafter Tablīghāt Islāmī Ḥawzah ʿIlmiyyah Qom, Cultural Affairs Division.